Current uses of long-term biological monitoring data in the evaluation and management of marine protected areas. If the material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission directly from the license holder to reproduce the material. June 11, 2023. 2016. Oceanography Magazine, The Oceanography Society, 1 Research Court, Suite 450-117, Rockville, MD, Prog. Through research efforts and NOAAs Ocean Noise Strategy, we work to better understand how marine animals use sound and the potential impacts of man-made noise on the underwater environment, including from offshore wind energy development. Defining trends and thresholds in responses of ecological indicators to fishing and environmental pressures. Palumbi. Scaling up to population-level effects requires consideration of the intrinsic population dynamics, including the mortality rates of a species that is a target for a fishery and of other species supporting them as prey. Mountain. Ser. Bulletin of Marine Science 44:631645. The impact of OWF on Mediterranean fisheries would be exacerbated if we consider the special importance of small-scale fisheries in this region (more than 80% of the total fishing fleet is composed of small-scale vessels that mostly use bottom contacting gears), which have been playing a dominant role in the livelihoods of coastal communities Despite this surrogate evidence, because OWF footprints are different from those of oil and gas installations, there remains uncertainty about how local ecological changes at the wind turbine scale translate to the wider ecosystem and about any consequence to resource species stock dynamics. Thus, understanding the potential causes and effects of OWFs on growth and mortality rates at the different life stages is important for recruitment and the resultant population available to be fished. Boon, D.J. Gill, A.B., and M. Desender. The distance traveled to preferred habitat will also vary by gender, as egg-carrying females are less active than those searching for a mate, and Homarus spp. There are currently no open notices and rules. 2020. During this stage, they inhabit crevices in sandy and rocky substrata that are similar to some scour protection (Figure B-1c). Recent environmental legislation and associated monitoring requirements are now shifting from a species-centric toward an ecosystem-based focus (e.g.,the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in Europe). NOAA Fisheries supports responsible development and research of offshore wind energy technology to combat the climate crisis and build a clean energy economy. Oikos 65(1):5260, https://doi.org/10.2307/3544887. WebSynergistic impacts with #noise deserve investigation. Here is a list of collaborative opportunities to improve existing approaches to offshore wind development. For example, offshore wind energy projects could: Offshore wind is a new use of our marine waters, requiring substantial scientific and regulatory review. 2019. The population (or stock) of a resource species is determined by the recruitment and growth of individuals and the mortality rate from both natural and human causes. Erdner, C.J. Fishes associated with artificial reefs: Attributing changes to attraction or production using novel approaches. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture 27:242260, https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2019.1584601. Larval export from marine reserves and the recruitment benefit for fish and fisheries. Want, G. Thouzeau, M. Lejart, N. Desroy, and A. Carlier. 2017. The construction and operation of wind turbines could impact commercial, recreational, and tribal fishing in a variety of ways, including: In particular, fishermen using trawl, dredge, and other mobile gear may have to significantly change their operations to avoid interacting with turbines and underwater cables. Effective management of the marine environment requires appropriately scaled and focused data collection to ensure that meaningful changes attributable to OWFs are acceptable to society (Wilding etal., 2017). Perrow, ed., Permagion Press. Hooker, A. Lipsky, and J.A. Large, S.I., G. Fay, K.D. Oceanography 33(4):96107, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2020.409. Claisse, and others. Adults usually travel several kilometers, with H. americanus moving over larger distances than the European lobster H. Gammarus (Wahle, 1992). Hydrobiologia 727:121136, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-013-1793-1. Schouten, and others. While our understanding of effects during the construction and operational phases is constantly growing, little is known about the effects of decommissioning and how a post-decommissioning environment will look and function. van Beusekom, D. Auch, U. Callies, J. Carpenter, T. Dudeck, S. Eberle, A. Eckhardt, D. Gloe, K. Hnselmann, and others. In Belgium, access to OWFs is prohibited for all vessels except wind farm maintenance and governmental research vessels. Claisse, J.T., D.J. Link. Hence, the links between the biological, ecological, and socioeconomic outcomes of the effects and the changes to the stock require better understanding. OKeeffe, A., and C. Haggett. They also aid in monitoring and assessing recovery and conservation programs for protected species and essential fish habitat. Its also critical to ensure that the planning, siting, and development of new projects do not harm fisheries, fishing communities, marine mammals, endangered species, and important habitats. Fowler, A.M., A.-M. Jrgensen, J.C. Svendsen, P.I. The meeting comes as the citys fishing industry faces what many see as threats on different fronts: offshore wind development, environmental challenges to fish stocks, and the recent trend of foreign and domestic private equity firms casting their net on regional fisheries like groundfish and scallops. The validity of most ecosystem modeling relies on local-scale data, but these approaches allow researchers to move beyond studying impacts on individual functional compartments of the ecosystem toward a more holistic approach and may improve insights into how OWFs affect fish productivity and hence fish stocks, with continued input from ongoing field data collection. Arrangements were made between the different stakeholders, and conditions for multi-use and transit of vessels were adapted based on new insights from research (https://www.msp-platform.eu/). Scientists around the world are still investigating the potential impacts of offshore wind energy development on marine life. Mavraki, N. 2020. juveniles are very vulnerable to predation and only leave the burrow if forced out. Going forward, integrated and standardized frameworks for maritime governance of interconnected marine environments that may cross national borders will play a key role in supporting a sustainable ocean energy industry that implicitly involves OWF and fisheries considerations (Wright etal., 2016). 2020. Fishing activities in and around Belgian offshore wind farms: Trends in effort and landings over the period 2006-2017. Yet, even for this 60-plus year-old industry, many questions remain regarding the regional implications of local ecological effects. 2014. The project will provide enough energy to power 400,000 homes in the state, according to Vineyard Wind. Sea turtles are a key part of marine ecosystems worldwide, but they face many threats today. (2017), such as Belgiums environmental monitoring program, WinMon.BE (Degraer et al., 2019). at the beginning of Leg 3 of the 2021 Northeast Fisheries Science Center fall bottom trawl survey. 2020. Mooney, T.A., M.H. The Gulf of Maine is likely the next area to watch, as BOEM released its Call for Information and Nominations in April 2023 for areas in a large region offshore The two bridges spanning the canal are used by trains (background) and vehicle traffic (foreground). 2013. Abstract Offshore Wright, G., A.M. OHagan, J. de Groot, Y. Leroy, N. Soininen, R. Salcido, M.A. Revolution Judd, A.D., T. Backhaus, and F. Goodsir. NOAA Fisheries ensures the deployment of U.S. offshore wind energy avoids and minimizes risks for protected resources, habitats, and managed fisheries. The difficulty is that evidence is required to clearly demonstrate effects at both local and regional scales. Do Offshore Wind Farms Affect Recreational Fishing? It outlines minimum procedures, system requirements, and other components for effectively designing and implementing passive acoustic monitoring. Ser. Figure 1 distinguishes two types of steps: (1) consultative steps that necessitate interaction among all four sectors (steps 1, 3, and 5), and (2) scientific reflection steps (steps 2, 4, and 6). The potential of offshore windfarms to act as marine protected areasA systematic review of current evidence. In the Netherlands, a fisheries action group protested against new OWFs in the North Sea. Web. An effective set of principles for practical implementation of marine cumulative effects assessment. Review report. The Marine Mammal Commission says offshore wind is not to blame. 2010. Journal of Environmental Management 149:14856, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.10.023. Furthermore, some effects may be deemed positive and others negative, depending on the perspectives of various stakeholders. Offshore Wind and Fishing: How Two Ocean Industries Will Coexist Off Americas Coasts Why the Rise in Offshore Wind Costs is Temporary EVs & Cold Weather Performance Experts React to IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land Land Report: Managing the Planet Now Necessary for Managing Climate Change, Say During the OWF operational phase, the artificial reef effect and fisheries exclusion will cause spatial and temporal changes in local food opportunity (Figure B-1c; Mavraki etal., 2020), habitat availability (Krone etal., 2013), and likelihood of predation (Reubens etal., 2014; Dannheim etal., 2020). 2013. The ecology of benthopelagic fishes at offshore wind farms: A synthesis of 4 years of research. Reubens, J.T., S. Degraer, and M. Vincx. The public will notice these shifts through changes in the availability of fresh seafood locally and nationally; preferred type, and price, size, and quality of food; and/or regularity of supply. 2018. Offshore wind's impact on the fishing industry remains hotly debated. Hence, the finances for site monitoring could be allocated, in part, toward targeted data collection (sensu Figure 1) across jurisdictional boundaries as necessary to properly understand the implications of OWF interactions with the fisheries sector. Designing marine reserve networks for both conservation and fisheries management. A joint study by two federal scientific agencies and the commercial fishing industry documents numerous impacts that offshore wind power projects have on fish Carr, and S.R. Knowledge of local effects on fish assemblages at individual wind farms and fisheries is increasing, particularly in the North Sea; however, effects of OWFs on fish stocks in Europe or elsewhere are poorly understood (but see De Backer etal., 2019). Many states have set similar ambitious goals. 1980. Birchenough, R. Brzana, A. WindEurope. 1997. Dannheim, J., L. Bergstrm, S.N.R. For example, protestors have used fishing vessels to obstruct pre-construction surveys in France. Fisheries science draws on the relatively well-understood aspects of species productivity (recruitment) and estimation of fishing mortality to achieve management objectives (Large etal., 2013). Examples of research efforts that can help inform offshore wind siting, construction, and operations include: We are particularly interested in understanding how wind projects may affect endangered species that live in or migrate through offshore wind areas, such as the North Atlantic right whale. Site assessment, construction, and operations could interact with marine life on the seabed, in the water, and at the surface. Feldheim, L. Van Herwerden, S. Planes, M. Srinivasan, and others. CARES Act. This approach was applied to the case study of offshore wind energy in the Belgian part of the North Sea, which is one of the most rapidly expanding industries in the marine environment globally. For example, the Common Fisheries Policy in Europe and the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act in the United States explicitly highlight spatial boundary delineation for fishery management. Pascal. According to the Carbon Neutral Roadmap, work could begin on an offshore wind farm system between 2030 and 2040. It's that time of year again! Carpenter, J.R., L. Merckelbach, U. Callies, S. Clark, L. Gaslikova, and B. Baschek. Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) modeling applied to an OWF in the English Channel suggests that a possible reef effect could increase total system biomass by 55% (Raoux etal., 2017). The national framework applies before, during, and after project construction. To advance the necessary scientific understanding of the effects of OWFs on fisheries, we also reflect on the wider societal, policy, and financial hurdles that currently hinder the efficiency and efficacy of monitoring and research programs, and propose possible solutions to overcome these hurdles. Mobile demersal megafauna at common offshore wind turbine foundations in the German Bight (North Sea) two years after deploymentIncreased production rate of Cancer pagurus. The report is part of a 10-year memorandum of understanding between the three groups - signed in 2019 that establishes a mutual interest of the Altered access or transit routes to fishery sites may lead to potential loss of revenue and increased costs to other maritime activities. Boon, J. Coolen, J.-C. Dauvin, I. Oceanography 33(4):8295, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2020.408. An overview of fish bioacoustics and the impacts of anthropogenic sounds on fishes. Moland, E., E.M. Olsen, H. Knutsen, J.A. We also provide information on the potential socioeconomic impacts of offshore wind projects on the commercial and for-hire fishing industries. Recruitment occurs at a specific point in the life of a resource species, while growth and mortality occur at each life stage. Williams, J.P. Williams, and A.S. Bull. Changes to fisheries that result from offshore wind farm (OWF) installations may be considered good or bad depending on various stakeholders perspectives. OWFs have four broad types of direct effects on fish and fisheries (Table 1): the artificial reef effect, fisheries exclusion, energy landscape effects (i.e.,sound, EMF, and currents, wind wake), and fisheries displacement (Bergstrm etal., 2014). Offshore wind impacts Those concerned about wind energy question whether the noise from siting and constructing wind farms may impact marine animals Fish. Rodwell. Science 277:509515, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.509. This will ensure that new projects are compatible with other ocean uses, including commercial, recreational, and tribal fishing. Changes in the sensory environment related to sound, as well as electromagnetic fields and physical alterations of current and wind wakes, may have as yet unknown impacts on fisheries resources. 2012. Meta-analysis reveals artificial reefs can be effective tools for fish community enhancement but are not one-size-fits-all. While the science highlights the need to consider ecosystem and transboundary scales, policies and consenting requirements in various national jurisdictions result in an uneven ability to effectively monitor and conduct fundamental research to understand fisheries and offshore wind interactions at the appropriate scales. Beyond fisheries exclusion and displacement, offshore wind can have other positive and negative social and economic implications for both commercial and recreational fishing communities and the extended fishing businesses they support (Hooper etal., 2017). Changing currents can also impact larval dispersal and distribution (Barbut etal., 2020). Current Biology 22:1,0231,028, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.008. The RIDEM is supportive of offshore wind energy development in an effort to mitigate the impacts of climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Integrating the temporal and spatial dependency of the four OWF effect types and of the life history of, for example, commercial marine species, is complex, as illustrated by the lobster genus (Homarus) in Box 1. We provide the BOEM with the best available science on the interactions between offshore wind energy projects and protected resources, habitats, and managed species. Part of the costs associated with OWF development relates to the licensing requirements and potential mitigation and/or compensation required. Marine Ecol. This will help wind developers reduce the impact of offshore wind energy projects on marine animals. The noise and vibrations generated by offshore wind turbines during the construction and operation phase have recently been found to negatively impact hearing sensitivity and cause behavioral changes in numerous marine organisms even at ranges of many kilometers distance from the windfarm (Nedwell, Langworthy, & Howell, 2003; Offshore Wind in Europe, Key Trends and Statistics 2019. 1997. When assessing fishery-effort changes that may be attributable to OWFs, it is important to interpret those changes in the context of the existing long-term trends and spatial boundaries (e.g.,Addison etal., 2015). On May 30, 2023, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management announced its final environmental assessment considering the effects of site characterization and site assessment activities associated with the leasing of federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico for offshore wind development. 102 pp. Degraer, S., D.A. 2019. These changes could have important implications for primary and secondary biological production (Floeter etal., 2017). In the Jiangsu coastal ecosystem of China, EwE modeling indicated that OWFs may increase detritus and benefit phytoplankton, zooplankton, anchovies, and some benthic fish (Wang etal., 2019). Consideration of how best to synergize laws, regulations, and policies across sectors and establish interindustry cooperation and consensus on codes and standards is recommended (Stuiver etal., 2016). We are focused on minimizing the impacts to ocean resources, critical habitats, and fishing opportunities throughout the planning, siting, and development stages. Report of MAFACs Offshore Wind Ad Hoc Working Group July 2020 5 Given the growing interest in offshore wind energy production, the United States should become more invested in considering site-specific conservation measures for essential fish habitat, habitats of particular concern, spawning areas, areas of high catch-per-unit-effort, PNNL-29976CHPT5 Pacific Northwest National Lab, Richland, WA, 18 pp., https://doi.org/10.2172/1633088. Journal of Fish Biology 94(5):692713, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.13948. Efforts to mitigate impacts of offshore wind energy development on NOAA Fisheries surveys, Read the fullDraft Federal Survey Mitigation Strategy. Formal monitoring of the environmental impacts of each offshore energy development is a requirement under many national legislative and/or regulatory frameworks (e.g.,European Directives and the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999). Pondella II, M. Love, L.A. Zahn, C.M. Fisheries ecosystem services operate at varying scales, including transboundary. Higher sound levels in the water column may increase mortality or cause sublethal effects (e.g.,developmental or behavioral) for the larval stages, while suspended sediment in the water column (turbidity) may reduce mortality because the predators vision may be inhibited (Figure B-1b; Gill and Wilhelmsson, 2019). Enersen, C. Andr, and N.C. Stenseth. Deputy Renouf said his team were on track ICES Journal of Marine Science 62:1,1501,167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icesjms.2005.04.005. Journal of Applied Ecology 42:605615, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01060.x. 2020. This will require the development of more holistic (social and ecosystem-level) approaches to management of interconnected marine environments that cross jurisdictions and national borders. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is the lead federal agency responsible for offshore energy exploration and development in the United States. 2005. Information gaps in understanding the effects of noise on fishes and invertebrates. The Department of Energy has announced $10.8 million in funding to research the impact of offshore wind on East Coast fisheries and ocean ecosystems. Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean. 2017. We are investigating how they use habitats in proposed wind energy areas and how offshore wind developments could impact their population. Article Google Scholar 3146 in Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Marking a Decade of Monitoring, Research and Innovation. Gaines, S. Airam, and R.R. 0:04. GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council). Ruttenberg, S.D. If current NOI release rates by BOEM continue (every 30 days) we would contribute concurrently to anAdditional Six EISsbefore the end of 2021 Addressing Impacts of Offshore Wind Development on NOAA Scientific Surveys & Advice Northeast NMFS Survey Interactions with Offshore Wind NOAA Fisheries researches and prepares for the possible impacts of offshore wind energy technology to commercial, recreational, and tribal fishing communities. 2019. Although the European offshore wind industry has existed and slowly expanded for more than two decades (WindEurope, 2020), the pace and scale of growth in the industry are now at similar inflection points in Europe, the United States, and East Asia, and major policy initiatives, such as net zero or specific renewable energy targets, are either already in place or being seriously contemplated by political jurisdictions. Fleeger, J.H. Murawski, S.A., S.E. 2020. Improved understanding of the economic and societal impacts of the OWF on fisheries is needed to assist energy policy development, planning, decision-making, and potential mitigation suggestions (Hooper etal., 2017). This event is held annually the first full week of June. NOAA Fisheries is a consulting federal agency. We are responsible for several regulatory processes that help reduce impacts to marine animals and their habitats from human activities, including during offshore wind development. A spatial analysis of the potentials for offshore wind farm locations in the North Sea region: Challenges and opportunities. Coolen, Z.L. Effects of offshore wind farms on marine wildlifeA generalized impact assessment. 2020. A chain-forming diatom, a common type of phytoplankton, found in the New York Bight area. Andersson, and J. Stanley. Bohnsack, J.A. Embed Transcript The offshore wind industry is poised for massive growth. Popper, A.N., and A.D. Hawkins. Warner. The White House has set a goal of significantly increasing the nations offshore wind energy capacity to 30 gigawatts by 2030. Images, animations, videos, or other third-party material used in articles are included in the Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Progress in Oceanography 156:154173, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2017.07.003. 2020. S. Degraer, R. Brabant, B. Rumes, and L. Vigin, eds, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. With planning by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) for offshore wind energy development in the Gulf of Maine moving forward, the Maine Department of Marine Resources is surveying highly migratory species (HMS) permit holders to gather information that could help minimize the impact Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, OD Natural Environment, Marine Ecology and Management, Brussels, 134 pp. 1989. Wahle, R.A. 1992. OWF growth is reflected in increases in the pace of new wind developments, new technological advances in turbine design and power management and transmission, and a significant increase in the spatial scales of projects (GWEC, 2020). We also provide recommendations to minimize the impacts of wind development on protected resources and essential fish habitats as part of the regulatory consultations process. 2016. Credit: NOAA Fisheries/Katelyn Depot. The accretion We are committed to careful review and use of the best available scientific information in satisfying the requirements of the Marine Mammal Protection Act for offshore wind energy projects. De Mesel. Floeter, J., J.E.E. Gill, A. De Backer, A., H. Polet, K. Sys, B. Vanelslander, and K. Hostens. Gill, A.B., S.N.R. Gill, A.B. OWF effects may occur during construction and/or operation phases. The present-day debate between fisheries and OWFs highlights the need for (re)directing knowledge advancement (both monitoring and research) toward addressing societal concerns, which fundamentally relate to fisheries (e.g.,through effects on stock size, structure, and/or distribution). BOEMs issuance of the final environmental assessment is For example, we developed or provided data to several resources to support responsible offshore wind energy development in the Atlantic: We worked with the Responsible Offshore Development Alliance and other partners on a peer-reviewed reportto improve understanding of existing science and data gaps related to offshore wind energy interactions with fish and fisheries. Fishing and related businesses have also petitioned federal agencies in the United States to improve inclusion of the fishing industry in the decision-making process and consider appropriate mitigation and compensation for any detrimental effects on the fisheries resources or fishers. 2016. Boon, E. Sheehan, J.C. Dauvin, J.P. Pezy, F. OBeirn, U. Janas, L. Rostin, and I. Friedland, and J.S. 1:00. Assessing environmental impacts of offshore wind farms: lessons learned and recommendations for the future. OWFs have four broad types of direct effects on fish and fisheries (Table 1): the artificial Marine Ecol. With the increasing number of offshore wind farms (OWFs) being built and planned in several coastal zones around the world, there is a growing need to fully consider multiple use options of the marine space because some traditional uses, such as fishing, are currently regarded as mostly incompatible with OWFs. Gill, P. Sigray, H. He, and J.W. Rebuilding global fisheries. Long-term effects of an offshore wind farm in the North Sea on fish communities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(43):15,46215,467, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411477111. We provide data and information to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management on historic fishing operations and coastal communities' reliance on fishing operations. Establishing a legal research agenda for ocean energy. 2013. In an op-ed about the potential for offshore wind energy generation in Maine, the South Portland Sentry noted that new offshore wind technology is still in 2020. Understanding the changes to fishery distribution, abundance, and biological rates will be critical to adaptation of fisheries assessments, and any reduction in the accuracy and precision of appropriately scaled survey data will lead to increased uncertainty in fisheries stock assessments and quota advice. PhD thesis, Ghent University, 276 pp. Changes to water currents and wind wakes (i.e.,the loss of kinetic energy leeward of the turbines) and their coupling to oceanographic processes may alter hydrodynamic patterns and vertical stratification, potentially over large spatial scales (Carpenter etal., 2016; SCEMFIS, 2020; van Berkel etal., 2020, in this issue). The vast majority of development so far has occurred in the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Summary Report of the Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) Catch During the 2011 Expanded Annual sSock Assessment (EASA). OWFs will directly or indirectly alter a range of provisioning, supporting, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services as a result of changes to the presence, abundance, and distribution of fisheries species and how fisheries and fishing communities respond to these changes (Gill and Wilhelmsson, 2019). Europe exhibits a similar patchwork of monitoring and research requirements among nations. WindEurope, Brussels, Belgium, 40 pp. In the United States, some but not all states have enacted fisheries research and monitoring policies that may be specific to state-level concerns and focused on individual projects despite the transboundary nature of fisheries and marine resources; the federal government only recommends guidelines for conducting fisheries monitoring activities (Methratta etal., 2020, in this issue). Hutchings, S. Jennings, and others. Marine Ecology Progress Series 429:197207, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09102. Current monitoring and research programs primarily target observing the aggregate effects of OWFs on individual receptors rather than determining the underlying cause-effect pathways; exceptions include the Belgian WinMon.BE monitoring program (Degraer etal., 2019) and the Dutch WOZEP research program (Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, 2016). Added to this, the cost of environmental monitoring to satisfy licensing requirements in a highly dynamic environment with a poor knowledge base highlights the need to allocate and disperse monitoring and research toward more strategic approaches to knowledge enhancement (Wilding etal., 2017). However, public participation is a crucial yet often neglected consideration in the plans for new developments in marine areas (OKeeffe and Haggett, 2012). Our long-term research surveys and data sets are essential for sustainably managing fisheries. Unfortunately, this approach is flawed in concept when trying to apply the outputs to understanding the effects of OWFs on fisheries resource species as it does not properly account for cumulative and in-combination effects (Judd etal., 2015) at spatial scales directed toward addressing the so what question of meaningful change (Wilding etal., 2017).